John Locke V Thomas Hobbes Essay

Locke and Hobbes both had detailed accounts as to what the state of nature is. I will start with Hobbes and what he felt the state of nature is made up of. Hobbes believed in defining the state of nature as what it is instead of what it ought to be. So he focused in on the nature of people and came to a very descriptive conclusion as to how survive in this particular state of nature. He stated that man was equal in ambition, cruelty, and treachery, which in turn makes humans equal in the ability to kill each other. This is important because he believes that people can not live in peace in the state of nature because of those reasons. Also because of this he states that there are three principals of quarrels; competition, diffidence, and glory. Hobbes feels that because of human nature these three reasons to fight would take over and make the state of nature a state of war. Locke also has an opinion to the state of nature. He feels that men would respond to things and people around them with reason and rationality. Therefore he feels that a state of nature for the most part peaceful and pleasant. He also states that the natural law would guide humans in a state of nature. He thinks that people know right from wrong and are capable of doing both but it is upon the individual to carry out these values. In order to deal with the state of nature each of the two suggests a social contract. Whatever the contract is should be the obligations placed upon the people. They both believe in this particular agreement they just differ as to who it should be between. Hobbes speaks of the Leviathan and believes that the contract should be between the ruled and the ruler. He states that a strong ruler is the only way to enforce the social contract. He says that all me are born with three rights: the right to property, liberty, and life. He believes that the only important right is the right to life because without that right you cannot have a chance to enjoy the other two. So his contract consists of the subjects giving up the other two to the leviathan so that he can ensure the right to life. Locke’s social contract differs in many ways. One of them is Locke does not believe that individuals should not give up liberty, but instead give up the right to punish people who commit wrongdoings and leave that up to a overwhelming force, in this case the popular sovereignty. His belief of the state of nature which is that man would use their reasoning and be rational when dealing with other people. So his contract is between the elected and the people. Locke and Hobbes social contract may be different but in ways they are similar. They both believe in revolt if the contract is broken, but they state it differently. Hobbes believes in the monarch so the revolt against him would be different then Locke’s society of popular sovereignty, but in short it both of them called for persecution in such case. Still the case that called for persecution would naturally be different because of the different types of governments these men called for. For example Locke says it is time to revolt when a ruler tries to get absolute power of the people; but Hobbes states that the leviathan needs to have absolute power and the only time to revolt is if the monarch is not able to protect the people he rules over. Hobbes explains the relationship between the subjects and ruler as do what you told and you will not be killed. This means that these people could not say anything about the way the sovereign is running the kingdom or you are subject to death. This is so in the way Hobbes looked at it because the only way to control the people is a state strong enough to persecute someone for this particular reason. The monarch that Hobbes feels is the only way to govern should not be questioned by anyone as so long he is able to protect the people of the land. Locke’s view of the relationship is really different. Based on the concept of popular sovereignty the sovereign are the people; so the relationship is more give and take or democratic. This is a very important concept to Locke’s ideas because this is what differs him the most from Hobbes. His democracy is broken down into three branches; executive, legislative, and federal. The elected officials in these positions are an extension of the people so the people who make up the state serves the people until the people are tired of them. What Hobbes and Locke say about people moving into a political society from a state of nature is pretty similar and all most the same. Both say that contracts between people were necessary, but the dilemma in that is that in a state of nature there is no one to enforce the contracts between people. Both of them thought about this concept and figured that in order to move in to a political society someone was needed to enforce these contracts. Hobbes believes that the only one strong enough to force contracts is the monarch. Locke believes the same thing about someone being strong enough to force the contracts but he thinks it should be the elected doing so. Locke’s two treatises limited sovereignty more so than it has before. Locke called for a separation of powers. He broke it down into three sections and combined it with the popular sovereignty; therefore the many limitations were in place. I believe Locke included this idea into is first and second treatise because he wanted to not allow the abuse of power that is so evident in a monarchy. This is important because this is what our American system of democracy is based upon. Hobbes system of government there is very little limitation. The only limitation I can see is when the monarch does not provide for the security of the people and they revolt. Though that limitation is called upon by Hobbes the rest of the terms of the monarch have no limitations. The monarch is the ruler and no one can go against him because he is the divine and going against him is going against god. So the limitations of a monarch are pretty much is inexistent in Hobbes’s the Leviathan. The rights of the subjects according to Hobbes are the right to live and that is it. The other rights now belong to the Leviathan; this is needed according to Hobbes to ensure security. A monarch that gives too many rights to the people is too weak to defend them. This is so because if the monarch is questioned a lot it takes away the fear of the ruler. Hobbes says that fear is needed to keep the people in check. Therefore a sovereign must practice a policy known as shock and awe. Without this strategy someone would feel that they might be able to challenge the monarch. So rights that the subjects hold on the sovereign are limited to the right to revolt if the monarch fails to protect them. Locke thinks that people should hold more rights to the elected. The subjects have the right to put people in the state and take them out. Locke gives people the right to liberty and property. This is different from Hobbes because Hobbes said to give those rights up. Locke says that you can have rights that Hobbes said would not work in transforming into a political society. Hobbes says that subjects cannot ensure that the sovereign roles for the greater good. Because if they are alive it is the greater good according to Hobbes; so what can they do to ensure that the ruler is operating for the greater good? According to Hobbes nothing because you can not go against the Leviathan on how he is ruling, and to do so can result in you getting killed. So once again the subject has very little to say in the Hobbes ideology. Locke also has a conflicting view with Hobbes on this ability to check the sovereign to make sure he is operating for the good of the people. The main thing that allows them to ensure what the government doing is right is the ability bring charges against any wrongdoings. This is powerful because it does not only kick those people out of office but also brings persecution to them. Another powerful way to make sure government is doing the right thing is the ability to vote or not to vote for people who make up the state. Both Locke and Hobbes are modern political philosophers with different ways of reaching the same objective. Their objective is to transform a state of nature into a political society. Though they disagree on what a state of nature is and they disagree on which is the better political society, but both were apparently right. This is so because both of the philosophies can be applied to life today, which is in a whole different context of their time.

A Description of Analytic Psychology

Advanced Counselling Skills Level 4 Assignment 0ne 1. Briefly describe Analytic Psychology www. jungclub-london. org C. G. Jung Analytical Psychology Club London. â€Å"Who looks outside, dreams, who looks inside, awakens,† The term ‘psychoanalyst' is currently used to cover all those facts and theories presented in the works of Freud, Jung, and Adler. However it is often recommended that it should be applied only to the theory and practice of Freud and his disciples, and that the theory and practice of Jung should be designated ‘Analytical Psychology', and that the theory and practice of Adler should be designated ‘Individual Psychology'.Psychoanalysis' in this broader sense covers both a set of theories and a set of practices. Analytic psychology is the analysis of the human mind, psyche and the unconscious, as well as the conscious components of the mind. It is thought that man's behaviour and his conscious states can be explained only by unconscious sourc es of motivation. What is common in the practice of the psychoanalytic schools is the use of special techniques for bringing these unconscious factors into light. The practice of psychoanalysis has grown out of the treatment of mental illness.In one sense, the practice of psychoanalysis is prior to the theories, since the theories first were developed from experiences from therapeutic practice. These theories have, however, been extended and enriched by material derived from other sources. Jung believed that the mind could be divided into unconscious and conscious parts. He felt that the unconscious mind was made up of layers. The personal unconscious is the part of the unconscious mind in which is stored each person's unique personal experiences and memories that may not be consciously remembered.Jung believed that the contents of each person's personal unconscious are organized in terms of complexes – clusters of emotional unconscious thoughts. One may have a complex toward s their mother or towards their partner. Jung referred to the second layer of unconsciousness as the collective unconscious. This level contains memories and behavioural predisposition's that all people have inherited from common ancestors in the distant human past, providing us with essentially shared memories and tendencies.People across space and time tend to interpret and use experience in similar ways because of â€Å"archetypes† – universal, inherited human tendencies to perceive and act in certain ways. During analytic therapy, Jung may use certain archetypes to explain person’s unconscious thoughts that in turn affect their outward behaviour. He believed that there are certain archetypes that are important in people's lives. These archetypes are as follows. The persona archetype is the part of our personality that we show the world, the part that we are willing to share with others.The shadow archetype is the darker part of a person, the part that embrac es what we view as frightening, hateful and even evil about ourselves – the part of us that we hide not only from others but also from ourselves. The anima is the feminine side of a mans personality, which shows tenderness, caring, compassion and warmth to others, yet which is more irrational and based on emotions. The animus is the masculine side of a woman's personality, the more rational and logical side of the woman.Jung posited that men often try to hide their anima both from others and from themselves because it goes against their idealized image of what men should be. According to Jung, archetypes play a role in our interpersonal relationships. For example, the relationship between a man and a woman calls into play the archetypes in each individual's collective unconscious. The anima helps the man to understand his female companion, just as the animus helps the woman to understand her male partners.Jung felt that the â€Å"self† – the whole of the persona lity, including both conscious and unconscious elements – strives for unity among the opposing parts of the personality. Jung distinguishes two differing attitudes to life, two ways of reacting to circumstances, which he finds so widespread that he could describe them as typical. The extraverted attitude, characterized by an outward personality, an interest in events, in people and things, a relationship with them, and a dependence on them. This type is motivated by outside factors and greatly influenced by the environment.The extraverted type is sociable and confident in unfamiliar surroundings. He or she is generally on good terms with the world, and even when disagreeing with it can still be described as related to it, for instead of withdrawing (as the opposite type tends to do) they prefer to argue and quarrel, or try to reshape it according to their own pattern. The introverted attitude, in contrast, is one of withdrawal of the personality and is concentrated upon perso nal factors, and their main influence is ‘inner needs'. When this attitude is habitual Jung speaks of an ‘introverted type'.This type lacks confidence in relation to people and things, tends to be unsociable, and prefers reflection to activity. Jung uses the term Analytical Psychology to describe his own approach, which is not only a way of healing, but also of developing the personality through the individuation process. Since individuation is not the goal of all who seek psychological help he varies his treatment according to the age, state of development, and temperament of his patients ‘ and does not neglect either the sexual urge or the will to power. 2. What were the life stages identified by Freud: ww. wikipedia. org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud â€Å"At that time, the eel life cycle was unknown and Freud spent four weeks at the which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience† Famed originator of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud crea ted a psychosexual model of human development based upon the erogenous zones of the body. He believed that as these zones matured neurologically, they activated the emotional world of the child (largely resident in the unconscious), and in the course of doing so, created the basis for later emotional health or mental illness in adulthood.The stages are as follows: Oral Stage of Psychosexual Development (ages 0-18 months) – At this stage, the infant is focused upon getting pleasure from its mouth, especially through breastfeeding, which may be a source of satisfaction or frustration for the baby. Anal Stage of Psychosexual Development (18 months – 3 1/2 years) – At this stage, the young child is fixated upon its own process of eliminating faeces, experiencing pleasure in the anal regions of the body, and reacting emotionally to attempts by parents or other caregivers to control this physical function through toilet training.Phallic Stage of Psychosexual Developme nt (3 1/2 years – 6 years) – At this stage, the penis or vagina is the source of erotic satisfaction for the child, and he or she fantasizes about getting pelvic pleasure with the opposite sex parent and aggressively doing away with the same sex parent (the Oedipal Crisis). Latency Stage of Psychosexual Development (6 years – puberty) – At this stage, the emotional surges of the previous three stages go into hiding for a few years as the child learns how to repress, project, introject, sublimate, and in other ways channel the psychosexual energies of their earlier development.Of Psychosexual Development (puberty – adulthood) – At this stage, the psychosexual instincts of the first three stages of development reassert themselves at puberty, but instead of being directed toward fantasy or the child's own body, are directed Genital Stage outward toward a genuine love relationship focused on heterosexual genital sex. The conscious mind includes everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally.A part of this includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily at any time and brought into our awareness. Freud called this ordinary memory the preconscious. In Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the conscious mind includes everything that is inside of our awareness. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about in a rational way. The conscious mind includes such things as the sensations, perceptions, memories, feeling and fantasies inside of our current awareness.Closely allied with the conscious mind is the preconscious, which includes the things that we are not thinking of at the moment but which we can easily draw into conscious awareness the unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experience, even though we are unaware of these underlying influences.In Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, the unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behaviour and experience, even though we are unaware of these underlying influences. The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and primitive behaviours. According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of personality. The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink.The id is very important early in life, because it ensures that an infant's needs are met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of the id are met. However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing things we want out of other people's hands to satisfy our own cravings. This sort of behaviour would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable.According to Freud, the id tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the primary process, which involves forming a mental image of the desired object as a way of satisfying the need. The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality. According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses. In many cases, the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification–the ego will eventually allow the behaviour, but only in the appropriate time and place. The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through the secondary process, in which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image created by the id's primary process.The last component of personality to develop is the superego. The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalised moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society–our sense of right and wrong. The superego provides guidelines for making judgments. According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five. There are two parts of the superego: The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for good behaviours. These behaviours include those, which are approved of by parental and other authority figures.Obeying these rules leads to feelings of pride, value and accomplishment. The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society. These behaviours are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments or feelings of guilt and remorse. The superego acts to perfect and civilize our behaviour. It works to suppress all unacceptable urges of the id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather that upon realistic principles. The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious.With so many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise between the id, ego and superego. Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability to function despite these duelling forces. A person with good ego strength is able to effectively manage these pressures, while those with too much or too little ego strength can become too unyielding or too disrupting. According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the superego. The term got its start in psychoanalytic therapy, but it has slowly worked its way into everyday language.Think of the last time you referred to someone as being â€Å"in denial† or accused someone of â€Å"rationalizing. † Both of these examples refer to a type of defense mechanism. In Sigmund Freud's topographical model of personality, the ego is the aspect of personality that deals with reality. While doing this, the ego also has to cope with the conflicting demands of the id and the superego. The id seeks to fulfill all wants, needs and impulses while the superego tries to get the ego to actin an idealistic and moral manner.What happens when the ego cannot deal with the demands of our desires, the constraints of reality and our own moral standards? According to Freud, anxiety is an unpleasant inner state that people seek to avoid. Anxiety acts as a signal to the ego that things are not going right. Frued identified three types of anxiety:Neurotic anxiety is the unconscious worry that we will lose control of the id's urges, resulting in punishment for inappropriate behavior. Reality anxiety is fear of real-world events. The cause of this anxiety is usually easily identified.For example, a person might fear receiving a dog bite when they are near a menacing dog. The most common way of reducing this anxiety is to avoid the threatening o bject. Moral anxiety involves a fear of violating our own moral principles. In order to deal with this anxiety, Freud believed that defense mechanisms helped shield the ego from the conflicts created by the id, superego and reality. 3. what factors determine a person’s behaviour according to watson: â€Å"Behaviourism †¦ holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the behaviour of the human being.Behaviourism claims that consciousness is neither a definite nor a usable concept. The behaviourist †¦ holds, further, that belief in the existence of consciousness goes back to the ancient days of superstition and magic†¦. The great mass of people even today has not yet progressed very far away from savagery – it wants to believe in magic†¦. Almost every era has its new magic, black or white, and its new magician. Moses had his magic: he smote the rock and water gushed out. Christ had his magic: he turned water into wine and raised the dead to li fe†¦. Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in asystematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. There are two major types of conditioning:Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus.Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishment s for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Behaviourism holds that only observable behaviours should be studied, as cognition and mood are too subjective.According to behaviourist theory, our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviours. Important concepts such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and reinforcement have arisen from behaviourism. In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such enticements. Also remember that classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished. . list 6 examples of metaneeds and metapathologies: www. oaks. nvg. org/abraham-maslow. html â€Å"Metaneeds and metapathologies. Another way that Maslow approaches the problem of self-actual ization is to talk about special, driving needs† The basic psychological needs are the instinctive needs for the self-respect and self-esteem which provide the conditions for psychological growth and full personality development. The most urgent or ‘prepotent' is the need for freedom from fear and anxiety i. . the need for safety or ‘security'. Security needs which includes the need to strive for   perfection or ‘ideals' is communicated through loving care and affection of ‘unconditional love' i. e. the need for ‘belongingness'. The sense of belongingness is the basis for approval of one's identity and expectations for oneself – faith in oneself as ‘self-respect' or ‘self-esteem' i. e. the ‘ego needs'. Gratification of ego needs establishes a natural condition of self-identity  or ‘healthy ego'.The healthy ego involves a high evaluation of the self based on faith in one's potentialities, recognition and appreciat ion of one's personal achievements, competence and confidence in the sense of importance of one's status. This basic sense of worthiness leads to the sense of purpose – ‘self-directedness' or ‘self-discipline' – which is prerequisite to ‘spiritual growth' of complete ‘personality development' of maturity i. e. ‘self-actualisation. Self-actualisation is mature growth which involves the harmonising of psychic forces i. . ‘growth motivation'. Metaneeds are human motivations for spiritual growth of the human organism as a social organism†¦ subconscious needs for awareness of human values for living: ‘social values' or ‘human values'  Metaneeds are instinctive needs of the human organism as a social organism which depends for survival on human solidarity and social cooperation. Metaneeds are the survival needs of creative   socialisation – the higher psychological needs for personality integration.The metaneeds are the so-called ‘higher spiritual needs' – the ‘Being needs' (‘B-needs') for self-transcendence – the needs for truth, morality, goodness, beauty, perfection, justice, kindness, happiness, serenity, wisdom, love simplicity, lawfulness, and ego-transcendance etc. The metaneeds are equally urgent or ‘potent' and each can be defined in terms of the others. In the process of normal psychological growth the subconscious B-needs rise to the conscious level of awareness as the human values for living – the ‘social values' i. e. ‘Being-values' or ‘B-values' i. e. ‘human values'.In the transcendental realm, the being needs become the ‘being-values'. They are just as biologically based as are the so-called ‘lower needs' – the   obviously physiological needs of hunger and thirst. The transcendant, religious, esthetic, and philosophical facets of life are as real and intrinsic to human nature as any oth er biological needs. Each of the human values represents a different facet of the development of ‘moral conciousness' or ‘conscience'. As the source of human values the functions to maintain the integration of personality while adapting to changes in the socal environment.Development of conscience depends on gratification of metaneeds in a process of ‘spiritual growth'. Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1954) stated that human motivation is based on people seeking fulfilment and change through personal growth. Maslow described self-actualized people as those who were fulfilled and doing all they were capable of. By studying people he considered to be self-actualised (including Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein and William James). Maslow identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualised person (illustrated as a pyramide).For example: enjoyment of new experiences, sense of humour, close friendships, creativity etc. It is not necessary to display all 15 characteristics to become self-actualised, and not only self-actualised people will display them. Maslow did not equate self-actualisation with perfection. Self-actualisation merely involves achieving ones potential. Thus someone can be silly, wasteful, vain and impolite, and still self-actualise. Less than one percent of the population achieve self-actualisation. The hierarchy of needs include: Biological and Physiological needs – air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.Safety needs – protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. Belongingness and Love needs – work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. Esteem needs – self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. Self-Actualisation needs – realising personal potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. 5. Describe the theories of Carl Rogers. How do you think his work is relevant t o the counselling you will undertake with your clients? www. simplypsychology. org/carl-rogers. tml â€Å"Carl Rogers believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to †¦ Central to Rogers' personality theory is the notion of self or Self-Concept† Theory of Personality Development Rogers' therapy was an extension of his theory of personality development and was known as client-centred therapy, since the basis of the therapy was designed around the client. According to Rogers each person has within them the inherent tendency to continue to grow and develop. As a result of this the individual's self-esteem and self-actualisation is continually influenced.This development can only be achieved through what Rogers refers to as â€Å"unconditional positive regard. In order for an individual to experience total self-actualisation the therapist must express complete acceptance of the patient. Roger's found that this was best achieved through the method of â₠¬Å"reflection†, in which the therapist continually restates what the â€Å"patient† has said in an attempt to show complete acceptance and to allow the patient to recognize any negative feelings that they may be feeling. Throughout the counselling session the therapist may make small interruptive remarks in order to help identify certain factors.For the most part the â€Å"patient† is allowed to direct the course of the session. Rogers began to use the expression â€Å"client† instead of â€Å"patient† due to the fact that the individuals that he was counselling did need help but not within the same regard that a medically ill person does. These individuals do not need to completely surrender themselves to a medical expert although they do need help. Today throughout the field of psychology it is a worldwide practice to address the individual as a client instead of a patient.Eventually throughout its development Rogers theory began to be known as â €Å"people-centred† due to its expansion beyond psychotherapy to such areas as education, marriage, leadership, parent-child relationships, and the development of professional standards. Within each branch that Rogers theory expanded to there were several basic elements that were applied to each. They were as follows: The individual comes for help. This is the most significant step within the steps of therapy. The individual has taken it upon himself to take the first step for help even if he does not recognize this as the reason he's there.The helping situation is defined. The client is made aware that the counsellor does not have the answers, but that with assistance he can, work out his own solutions to his problems. . The counsellor encourages free expression of feelings in regard to the problem. The counsellor provides the client with a friendly, interested, and receptive attitude, which helps to bring about free expression. The counsellor accepts, recognizes, and clarif ies negative feelings. Whatever the negative feelings are the counsellor must say and do things, which helps the client recognize the negative feelings at hand.When the individual's negative feelings have been expressed they are followed by expressions of positive impulses, which make for growth. The counsellor accepts and recognizes the positive feelings in the same manner as the negative feelings. There is insight, understanding of the self, and acceptance of the self along with possible courses of actions. This is the next important aspect because it allows for new levels. Then comes the step of positive action along with the decreasing the need for help. When I am counselling I would use the following teniques: Active listening as a listener I would show much interest.As the listener I would reflect back to the client and only speak to find out if what they said has been correctly heard and understood. I would watch my Body language and take into account my facial expressions, a ngle of my body, proximity of myself to another, placement of arms and legs. I need to monitor the tone of your voice – in the same way that I monitor my body language. I believe that Carl Rogers core conditions I would use such as Empathic understanding I feel this is important when counselling to make sure the client are simply understood – not evaluated, not judged, simply understood from their own point of view.As the facilitator I am real person, being what I say I am, entering into a relationship with the client without presenting a front or a facade, the client is much more likely to be effective. Being real and genuine. This means that feelings that the client is experiencing are available, available to their awareness that I am able to live these feelings, be them, and able to communicate if appropriate. It means coming into a direct personal encounter with the client, meeting the client on a person-to-person basis.Like Carl Rogers I believe that client â€⠀œ centred therapy is for me because it is a non-directive approach is very appealing on the face of it to many clients, because they get to keep control over the content and pace of the therapy. It is intended to serve them, after all. The therapist isn't evaluating them in any way or trying to â€Å"figure them out†. 6. How is attachment theory relevant to counselling? Briefly describe the strange situation test and its importance in attachment theory: www. wikipedia. rg/wiki/Attachment_theory â€Å"Attachment theory describes the dynamics of long-term relationships between humans. Its most important tenet is that an infant needs to develop a relationship† The relationship between a counselor and client is the feelings and attitudes that a client and therapist have towards one another, and the manner in which those feelings and attitudes are expressedThe relationship may be thought of in three parts: transference/countertransference, working alliance, and the real- o r personal-relationship.Another theory about the function of the counseling relationship is known as the secure-base hypothesis, which is related to attachment theory. This hypothesis proposes that the counselor acts as a secure-base from which clients can explore and then check in with. Secure attachment to one's counselor and secure attachment in general have been found to be related to client exploration. Insecure attachment styles have been found to be related to less session depth than securely attached clients. The professional boundary defines the extent and limitations of the relationship with your client.It preserves your client’s confidentiality and creates a ‘safe space’ for your client to reveal and explore personal issues. Boundaries are signified by the temporal and spatial routines of the counseling process: regular appointment times, consistent length of sessions and a dedicated counseling room. Attachment theory describes the dynamics of long-ter m relationships between humans. Its most important tenet is that an infant needs to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for social and emotional development to occur normally.Attachment theory is an interdisciplinary study encompassing the fields of psychological, evolutionary, and ethological theory. Immediately after WWII, homeless and orphaned children presented many difficulties, and psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby was asked by the UN to write a pamphlet on the matter. Later he went on to formulate attachment theory. Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age.When an infant begins to crawl and walk they begin to use attachment figures (familiar people) as a secure base to explore from and return to. Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment; these, in turn, lead to internal working models which will guide the individual's perceptions, emotions, thoughts and expectations in later relationships. Separation anxiety or grief following the loss of an attachment figure is considered to be a normal and adaptive response for an attached infant. These behaviours may have evolved because they increase the probability of survival of the child.

HEALTHCARE ETHICS AND END OF LIFE DECISIONS Essay - 1

HEALTHCARE ETHICS AND END OF LIFE DECISIONS - Essay Example he wrongful birth is synonymous, in certain circles, to wrongful life and elaborates that the sheer birth of the defective child is entirely by choice of the medical personnel and not the parents. The parents sue for a claim to support the unexpectedly defective child. Parents are free to file this suit. However, they must give evidence beyond any reasonable doubt that they had no prior knowledge of their unborn child’s condition. The first case of wrongful birth became known in 1975 when the parents of a newborn with congenital defects sued the hospital for negligence. The child’s congenital disease arose from the mother during the first month of pregnancy. The mother contracted a disease, rubella that caused the newborn’s impairment. The courts allowed the suit and the parents got awarded damages. However, the damages allowed were only for the expenses pertinent to the care and treatment of the child’s defectiveness. No damages are awarded for noneconomic aspects such as the emotional pain and suffering. Since the mid-1970’s, the wrongful birth suits are, evidently, on an upward trend. However, for the suit to hold certain elements have to come out clearly and the information must receive corroboration from all the parties involved. First, there must be proof of the existence of a doctor-patient relationship between the defendant and the plaintiff. The doctor’s negligent failure to disclose to the prospective parents their child’s condition must surface. The plaintiff must give evidence of harm suffered and finally; the harm must be a result of the doctor’s negligence. The failure to follow standard care by the doctor amounts to negligence. Pozgar (2011) elucidates that a key ethical issue put forward by those against the wrongful birth is the increase in the rate of abortion in the event that the doctors disclosed the relevant information. Many suits also fail on this ground since parents can hardly use the averted abortion to state the

Security of Digital Signatures Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Security of Digital Signatures - Research Paper Example We will discuss the history of cryptography as it was initially the first concept that derived digital signatures and encryption algorithms. Moreover, we will discuss the nature, privacy and implementation of digital signatures. Furthermore, we will discuss new tools, techniques, methods and standards that are used along with the drawbacks associated with digital signatures. Introduction and History Even today, where every technology interrelated to Information technology involves the ‘.com’ phenomenon; Internet is relatively an evolving field, which is constantly changing. Extensive use of computing technology has aid different scale organizations to achieve targets. Every now and then, there is a news of a major security breach resulting in an invasion of personal privacy data such as credit card details, emails and vice versa. In spite of securing the networks, workstations and data centers, with the most updated and advanced security modules, there is still a probabi lity of a new threat to break into the network and void data integrity. In addition, hackers and cyber criminals are exploring efficient codes day by day to advance the hacking tools, in order to breach in to classified information, banks and website customer details, steal emails etc. In the end, the mission critical data are compromised, resulting in severe losses for organizations. In this report we will focus on digital signatures and their importance as well as the history, current state, and challenges that still need to be overcome. The concept for safeguarding messages with cryptography has a brief history, as Julius Caesar is considered to be one of the first cryptographic system inventors (Strauss,). Likewise, the system was utilized for transmitting military messages to generals. However, there is one issue that has prevented cryptography to be used globally and i.e. The problem of key management. In the scope of cryptography, keys are numerical values that are the inputs of algorithms that are used for modifying information to make it encapsulated and secure, and to make it visible only to the people possessing the required key to decrypt the message and make it visible. Accordingly, the key management concept incorporates safeguards keys and protects them from unauthorized use, as they will only be visible to users only when and where they required. Similarly, the origin of digital signatures came over 100 years ago when people started using Morse code along with the telegraph for electronically exchanging contracts. Likewise, a validated version of electronic signatures emerged from the New Hampshire Supreme Court in the year 1869 (The history of electronic signature laws, n.d), as it states: "It makes no difference whether [the telegraph] operator writes the offer or the acceptance in the presence of his principal and by his express direction, with a steel pen an inch long attached to an ordinary pen holder, or whether his pen be a copper wire a thousand miles long. In either case the thought is communicated to the paper by the use of the finger resting upon the pen; nor does it make any difference that in one case common record ink is used, while in the other case a more subtle fluid, known as electricity, performs the same office." However, another invention followed that facilitated electronic signatures to be used in everyday life involved in the digital exchange of data or

Synecdohe, New York Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Synecdohe, New York - Movie Review Example The movie is also based on the unique trait of representing a whole story in the part of the movie Plot, Theme and Characterization The movie depicts the life of a theatre director, played by Philip Hoffman who suffers throughout his life in various physical ailments. However his condition deteriorated as her wife departs taking the daughter with her. Throughout the movie Caden depicts the inevitability of death and holds the idea that everyone around him is already dead. It is the philosophies of death that surrounds him thought in the movie. The film uniquely portrays the self-discovery of Caden in the movie. The transition stages of Caden have been vividly described in the movie. The movie describes the four stages of Caden where he identifies the destructiveness and the constructive nature present with him. In other portions of the movie Caden’s consciousness and the urge for his wife and family grows. Caden becomes aware of himself and the archetypal spirit within him. He also undertakes a critical analysis of himself through which he understands his ego and has a complete self realization. At the end of the move his quest for his self discovery ends and realizes the truth associated with his love and life. The self-realization of Caden depicted within the movie can be traced back to the Jungian philosophy which states the four stages of self realization which has been portrayed through Caden’s role in the movie Synecdoche, New York. In order to undergo the process of self-realization Caden decides to make a play based on his own life story. The technique of using the play in the movie was a unique element used for depicting the life story. In the movie Caden is portrayed to be in a myopic state of mind which provides the justification of using the play in order to analyze the series of events which went through his life. In the play composed by Caden, the role of Caden was played by Sammy, whose role was very influential in deciding the outc ome of the play. The role played by Sammy portrayed Caden’s life in the best possible way and at some point it appeared that he overtook the original life of Caden in the movie. The actor in the play also provided suggestion regarding his role play but Caden did not agree with him. Finally in the play, Caden hands over the responsibility of the direction to an actress and he steps into the shoes of the cleaning lady of her wife. Cadens decision to play the role of cleaning lady shows the passion of his love towards her wife. It illustrates Cadens viewpoint that in order to stay close with her wife he was also ready to be the cleaning lady. It also reflects Caden’s state of mind when Adele left him and highlights the desperateness within him to get his wife back in the later stage of his life. Caden also surrendered himself to his daughter and held him to be responsible for her dying condition. The movie reached its peak when Caden describes himself to be homosexual to his daughter and takes the burden of the entire disturbance which was there in his personal life with his wife. In the play another dramatization has been provided to highlight the theme of the movie. One of the characters in the play, Hazel is shown to purchase a house which has been on fire. At the initial stage Hazel was reluctant to purchase the house as she feared that it will be the cause of her death. Ultimately Hazel

Employee retention and development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Employee retention and development - Essay Example Employee retention is more difficult than employee recruitment process in western countries. â€Å"The expense of recruiting and re-training a new worker costing anywhere from half to 200% of the departing employee’s annual salary†(Hebenstreit, Ph.D. 2008, p.4). It is estimated that U.S. companies spent $134.1 billion on employee learning and development in 2008 (Kraimer et al, 2011, p.485). Normally an organization spends a substantial amount of money for the training and development purposes of its employees. When an employee decides to quit an organization, all the money spent for the training and development of that employee by the organization will be wasted. It is the duty of the human resource department of an organization to implement strategies to reduce employee dropouts or turnover. â€Å"The UK average employee turnover rate is approximately 15% a year, although this varies drastically between industries. The highest levels of turnover are found in private sector organisations in retailing, catering, call centres, construction and media†(Workforce Management, 2011). The above employee turnover rate is huge when we compare it with employee turnover rate in other parts of the world. The reasons for higher employee turnover rate could be different like; attractive offers from other organizations, dissatisfaction over the working conditions in the present organization, ill-health, personal problems etc. In any case, it is duty of the human resource department to reduce the employee turnover rate as much as possible. â€Å"Replacing employee is not only time consuming, but expensive, costing you between  50 to 100 per cent of that positions’ annual salary† (Employee Retention and Recruitment Tips, 2009). This paper analyses the possible employ ee retention and development strategies, HRM department can implement in an organization. Theories related to Recruitment Before analysing the employee retention and development policy in detail, it is necessary to evaluate the normal recruitment policies adopting by current organization. In fact retention starts at the time of recruitment itself and therefore HRM professionals should start their efforts to retain the employees at the time of recruitment itself. Recruitment methods can be classified into two broad categories; internal and external. Internal recruitment method is normally adopted by organization when it is in need of emergency requirement of employees at some places. For example, suppose the production manager of manufacturing industry, has resigned due to some reasons. It is difficult for the organization to wait till the HRM department identifies a suitable person using external recruitment method. External recruitment process usually consists of many time consumin g stages such as posting of recruitment ads in various medias, written tests, interviews, etc. The organization may not get a production manager at least for few months if it opts for external recruitment methods. It is difficult for a production oriented organization to manage its production works for longer periods without a production manager. So, when emergency occurs, such organizations will try to promote some of its existing supervisors to the production manager post. In other words, an organization may opt for internal recruitmen

CIS 375 Week 2 Assingment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

CIS 375 Week 2 Assingment - Assignment Example The section below provides a comparison between the metaphors used in the two interfaces. Metaphors are a basis for the interaction and communication between the user and the computer. According to Carroll, Mack, & Kellogg (2007), applications utilizing menu driven screen have metaphors such as mouse pointers and cursors to indicate the motion of the mouse on the screen. This metaphor has been replaced all together on the multi-touch screen interface. The mouse driven interfaces are operated by dragging the cursor on the screen and effecting commands by clicking. Underling concepts of the application are presented in form of icons for a user to understand. Both the mouse driven and multi-touch screens use icons to represent underlying application concepts (Carroll et al, 2007). For instance the recycle bin is used to represent deleted items. Mouse driven screen interface uses the desktop metaphor which is a unifying concept that helps users to easily use a computer. The desktop metaphor treats the computer monitor as the user’s interaction point. Here, objects such as documents, files, folders and other accessories are placed. On the other hand the multi-touch screens use the home metaphor where all applications can be accessed by the user. In other applications that use both the mouse driven and multi touch screens both the home screen and the desktop metaphors can be used (Carroll et al, 2007). Multi-touch screens allow moving layered views to allow the user to view content beneath them; the screen also uses swiping as a way of viewing different windows. Additionally, the interface uses the dragging, flicking and swiping objects on the screen. This is common when playing games and performing other basic tasks (Carroll et al, 2007). The mouse driven screen will perform this tasks using the minimizing and maximizing option on the window. This interface also utilizes the dragging metaphor for movement of objects on

Humana Insurance Hispanic Market Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Humana Insurance Hispanic Market - Essay Example Speaking of various backgrounds, Humana is also servicing the individuals or customers from varied ethnic backgrounds including the Hispanics. With Hispanics constituting a sizable portion of the population in US, organizations operating in various sectors including the ones in the Insurance sector like Humana are giving extra focus to this section of the population. Although, Humana is carrying out customer friendly strategies in regards to Hispanics, specifically the strategy of localization or customization, when viewed in an overall manner, it is not doing it effectively, and so if it can optimize or improve that strategy, it can give Humana the competitive advantage in relation to the Hispanics Market. According to US Census Bureau, more than 50 million Hispanics currently live in the United States, comprising about 17 percent of the total U.S. population. (Black, 2013). Although, Hispanics are a varied ethnic population, differing in the aspects of country of origin, race, etc., they speak the common language of Spanish. Their population is on the rise and that is making impacts on the health sector as well. â€Å"They are the fastest growing racial or ethnic population in the United States today and are expected to comprise approximately 30 percent of the total US population by 2050.† (Black, 2013). Despite witnessing fast growing rates, the Hispanics continue to face discrepancies regarding health coverage as well as care, thereby making them â€Å"the highest uninsured rate among racial/ethnic groups, with nearly one in three lacking coverage† (Black, 2013). These facts about the Hispanics, apart from reflecting how they are not completely covered under insurance , also brings out the key point of how they are a strong prospective customer base for the insurance companies including Humana. In that direction, Humana has

Role of Conflict and Power Essay Example for Free

Role of Conflict and Power Essay The Kite Runner, written by Khaled Hosseini, is a novel about power, justice, and both internal and external conflict. The feelings of jealousy and selfishness are continually shown by at least two of the main characters throughout the story. This is also a story of cultural power brought on by the influences of the Taliban within the Afghan society. Power is a constant theme throughout the novel and ties closely with the conflict in the characters. Amir, is the central character and is shaped both in character and intellect by power. He is privileged and wealthy, but also steeped in jealousy and cowardice. He is selfish and guilty of abhorrent behaviors. The one positive strength Amir has is his friendship with Hassan. Considered best friends this is a friendship that is generally one-sided with Hassan showing the loyalty and trust. There is an ongoing conflict for this friendship because Amir shares paternal heritage with Hassan. Hassan was born into servitude and thus Baba, the boys’ father, cannot lay claim to Hassan’s heritage. The Afghan traditions and culture pose a conflict for Baba regarding Hassan. Hassan for his part is loyal, forgiving, and an all-around pleasant person to be with. The two boys are drawn to each other naturally. Hassan is the family servant and never wavers in his loyalty to the family even with the knowledge that he should be considered part of it. At the same time, Baba struggles with his own morals and the rigid Afghani traditions. He is proud and determined but also emotionally detached from Amir. Amir feels the detachment deeply and constantly strives to receive Baba’s affection. There are several characters that tie into the overall story. Ali is Hassan’s surrogate father and also servant to Baba. Assef is the antagonist for the story along with two other boys; Kamel and Wali. Assef is a bully and an abuser. Ultimately he sexually abuses Hassan and Sohrab, Hassan’s son. Assef feels no sorrow or remorse for his actions and  continues to bully people. In the second half of the novel, Farid, Amir’s driver and friend proves to be a valuable and trustworthy friend eventually helping to search for Sohrab. Sharif, is Amir’s uncle by marriage and also proves to be an asset in bringing Sohrab to the United States. There are many more second class characters within the story that have minor roles to the significance of the story. Communication, or the lack thereof, plays an important part to the story. Baba lacks emotional communication with both Amir and Hassan. For Amir, Baba displays his love with gifts and monetary gains. This leads Amir to feel privileged and entitled. He is a selfish child with no real emotional connection to his father. Amir displays jealousy to anyone receiving Baba’s affection no matter how small the significance. This jealousy is directed at Hassan because Amir is taught to believe that servants are beneath him. Hassan for his part, is a good natured child, he forgives easily and comes across almost as naive. Amir behaves terribly toward Hassan, using passive-aggressive tactics to goad Hassan, which never really works to Amir’s benefit. It becomes apparent that although Amir considers Hassan to be his best friend, Amir struggles with the communication necessary to show his affection. When Hassan is raped, it is because Amir betrays him. It isn’t until well after the rape that a grown Amir can effectively communicate his guilt regarding his role in the rape. This guilt eventually leads Amir to search for Hassan’s son. Communication plays another significant role that closely ties culture and relationships. Afghani culture seems to have a specific role for males; emotions are not shown although there is a deep value on morals. The fact that culture plays such an important part is evident within the relationship between Baba and Hassan. Baba cannot publicly announce that Hassan is his son but he can do small favors and give gifts. He can also treat Hassan as a part of the family with deference to direct heritage; son versus nephew. Communication and culture directly affect the issues of power and conflict within the story and the dialogue between the characters. The greatest source of conflict is caused by the fact that Hassan is Baba’s son. Amir is aware of this fact and reacts negatively. Amir is both jealous and cruel to Hassan, yet he also considers Hassan to be his most important friend. The friendship is generally one-sided with Hassan consistently showing his trust and loyalty to Amir even after the next major conflict occurs, Hassan’s rape.  Hassan’s rape is brought on by Amir’s actions. He wants to be the best kite runner and tries to prove himself during a competition with Hassan at his side. Assef shows his true character within this portion of the novel by sexually abusing Hassan. Amir fails to intervene in the rape of Hassan and subsequently struggles with guilt. Amir attempts to atone for his actions throughout the rest of the book. Part of the conflict for Amir is within himself. He allows and unspeakable act to happen to his best friend, then he feels tremendous guilt about not helping him. This guilt ultimately affects Amir’s character and changes the way he sees things. Assef, Hassan’s rapist, shows the magnitude of his power from the beginning towards both boys but eventually directs his power on Hassan. The primary reason for this is because of the culture and way of life and also Hassan’s status within the community. Conflict ultimately leads to displays of power throughout the book. Power is a cornerstone of the events to the story. It is shown in many differing ways from authority and control to and a means to an end. Assef uses his power to prove his social status. He is demeaning, mean, and a bully to those he considers beneath him. The rape is an effect of Assef’s definition of power. The other real source of power comes from the Taliban regime. The Taliban show power over others because they own it and others do not. Power is exclusive to the Taliban because of control and this allows the Taliban to reign over everyone. Baba feels this power and shows his deference to it by following the rules of the culture. These rules eventually lead to the conflict in the story. Power and control can pave the way for a person to either be held under or to allow them to regain control over themselves. When Amir finally discloses his guilt in the final portion of the book, he shows his own power. Amir is able to gain self-worth through his actions to help Sohrab and thus begins to forgive himself for his role in Hassan’s tragedy. Self-disclosure has a purpose in life and Amir uses it perfectly. He is able to confront his own issues while at the same time offer assistance to another. This is a novel that is worth reading. It gives a unique perspective on Afghani culture that a person wouldn’t normally see. There is culture of rigid rules, family dynamics and secrets, as well as how society rules over people.

Transaction And International Law Essay Example for Free

Transaction And International Law Essay Question 1. Before the UCC and the UCITA, what was one of the first, and most significant, of the U.S. governments attempts to promote uniformity in commercial laws from state to state? (Hint: think of commerce and Constitution). The first, and most significant, of the U.S. governments attempts to promote uniformity in commercial laws from state to state is firstly, the relevant provisions of the US Constitution and also Section 118 of the General Business Law which predates that of Section 7-210. [1] Question 2. Based on the information presented above, what do you see as the major differences between Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code and UCITA? The UCITA, as a controversial model law promulgated by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, covered transactions in computer and digital information, in place of Article 2 of the UCC. UCITA would codify the view that traditional software distributions are licenses, not sales. Section 102(43), (44) of the UCITA (1999 Official Text) recognized mass marketed binary software transactions as licenses.[2] UCC Article 2 covers only contracts for sale of goods, so computer software is not expressly covered by Article 2. Computer software is different considering that it is so easily copied, thus it needs special protection. It is one of a few commercial enterprises that entirely depend on a single traditional copyrighted work such as a book, musical recording, motion picture, or painting.[3] Licensing thus becomes very important. Licensing enables the developer to control software distribution, to price software to reflect its value to the user, and to ensure that users are subject to developers limitation of liability provisions. However, there is a legislative gap that has forced courts to apply the UCC to license transaction, which it was never meant to address. Hence, the UCITA. Question 3. What is the legal distinction between selling a product and licensing it? The overlap of terminology between sale and license has caused confusion within the courts and has led to some acceptance of a license as a sale in some jurisdictions. The courts have used several methods to establish that a sale of software is the sale of a good within the meaning of the UCC Article 2. The simplest method of establishing software as a sale is when the parties agree in their briefing that Article 2 applies to the licensing of their software. Court would thus only have to look at the contract to see what rules would apply. For other courts, the analysis is more in-depth. In Architectronics, Inc v. Control Systems, the court applied UCC Article 2 to a software development transaction for a license of the software. The court held that the applicability of Article 2 is not defeated by use of license in lieu of sales if license provides for transfer of some of incidents of goods ownership. In Microsoft Corp. v. DAK Industries, the court looked to the economic realities of the particular arrangement. Upon this analysis, the court found that DAK had a right to sell the software and thus the arrangement was similar to a purchase of goods thus indicating that it was a sale, not a license to use.[4] Question 4. Many of the provisions in the UCITA were first proposed as a modification to Article 2 of the UCC. Why do you think the drafters decided to propose it as a separate and distinct uniform act? To be effective, a provision must be approved both by the NCCUSL and the ALI. Since the final draft of Article 2B as proposed was rejected by the American Law Institute or ALI, the required approval of both bodies was thus lacking. As a consequence, the NCCUSL renamed it as the now UCITA.[5] Specifically, the UCITA, as a controversial model law promulgated by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, covered transactions in computer and digital information, in place of Article 2 of the UCC. UCITA would codify the view that traditional software distributions are licenses, not sales. Section 102(43), (44) of the UCITA (1999 Official Text) recognized mass marketed binary software transactions as licenses .[6] UCC Article 2 covers only contracts for sale of goods, so computer software is not expressly covered by Article 2. Computer software is different considering that it is so easily copied, thus it needs special protection. It is one of a few commercial enterprises that entirely depend on a single traditional copyrighted work such as a book, musical recording, motion picture, or painting.[7] Licensing thus becomes very important. Licensing enables the developer to control software distribution, to price software to reflect its value to the user, and to ensure that users are subject to developers limitation of liability provisions. However, there is a legislative gap that has forced courts to apply the UCC to license transaction, which it was never meant to address. Hence, the UCITA. References: Adobe Systems Inc., 84 F. Supp. 2d; SoftMan Products, 171 F. Supp. 2d. August, R. International Business Law (3rd Edition), New Jersey: 2000 Ayyappan, UCITA: Uniformity at the Price of Fairness?, 69 Fordham L. Rev. 2471, 2471-72 (2001) Brownlie, I. Principles of Public International Law (6th edition), OUP, 2003. Davidson Assocs., Inc. v. Internet Gateway, Inc., 334 F. Supp. 2d 1164, 1177 (E.D. Mo. 2004) Lake v Dye, 232 NY 209 [1921] Maritime World Corp. v Grefe Steel Warehouse Corp., 154 NYS 2d684 Nadan, Software Licensing in the 21st Century: Are Software â€Å"Licenses† Really Sales, and How Will the Software Industry Respond?, 32 AIPLA Q.J. 555, 558 (2001). [1] August, R. International Business Law (3rd Edition), New Jersey: 2000; Lake v Dye, 232 NY 209 [1921]; Maritime World Corp. v Grefe Steel Warehouse Corp., 154 NYS 2d684 [Sup Ct, Trial Term, NY County 1956]) [2] Davidson Assocs., Inc. v. Internet Gateway, Inc., 334 F. Supp. 2d 1164, 1177 (E.D. Mo. 2004) where the court finds first sale doctrine does not apply because defendants did not buy the software, they bought a license to the software. [3] Nadan, Software Licensing in the 21st Century: Are Software â€Å"Licenses† Really Sales, and How Will the Software Industry Respond?, 32 AIPLA Q.J. 555, 558 (2001). [4] Adobe Systems Inc., 84 F. Supp. 2d; SoftMan Products, 171 F. Supp. 2d. [5] Ayyappan, UCITA: Uniformity at the Price of Fairness?, 69 Fordham L. Rev. 2471, 2471-72 (2001) [6] Davidson Assocs., Inc. v. Internet Gateway, Inc., 334 F. Supp. 2d 1164, 1177 (E.D. Mo. 2004) where the court finds first sale doctrine does not apply because defendants did not buy the software, they bought a license to the software. [7] Nadan, Software Licensing in the 21st Century: Are Software â€Å"Licenses† Really Sales, and How Will the Software Industry Respond?, 32 AIPLA Q.J. 555, 558 (2001).

Analysis of Petroliam Nasional Berhad

Analysis of Petroliam Nasional Berhad Introduction This chapter will discuss the back ground of the company, background of study, definition of term problem statement, research objective, research question, significant of study, scope of study and limitation of study. Background of Company Petroliam Nasional Berhad is the short name for PETRONAS. PETRONAS is the National oil corporation of Malaysia which was incorporated on 17th August 1974 under the Malaysian Companies Act of 1965. The Malaysian Petroleum Development Act 1974 vested upon PETRONAS the exclusive rights to explore, develop and produce petroleum resources within Malaysia. Since its corporation, PETRONAS has evolved into a fully integrated multinational oil and gas company. PETRONAS business activities range from upstream oil and gas exploration and production to downstream oil refining; marketing and distribution of petroleum products; trading; gas processing and liquefaction; gas transmission pipeline operations; marketing of liquefied natural gas; petrochemical manufacturing and marketing; shipping; and property investment. Vision A Leading Oil and Gas Multinational of Choice. Mission We are business entity Petroleum is our core business Our primary responsibility is to develop and add value to the national resource Our objective is to contribute to the well being of the people and the nation. Shared Values Loyalty Loyal to Nation and Corporation Integrity Honest and Upright Professionalism Committed, Innovative and Proactive and Always Striving for Excellence Cohesiveness United in Purpose and Fellowship Organization Structure of PETRONAS PETRONAS Carigali Sdn Bhd Through Petronas Exploration Production (EP) subsidiary, Petronas Carigali Sdn.Bhd. (Petronas Carigali) has developed capability as a hands-on operator with a track record of successful oil and gas developments. PETRONAS Carigali incorporated on 11th May 1978. The purpose of the formation is to increase Malaysian participation in the exploration and production industry in the country. PETRONAS Carigali works alongside a number of petroleum multinational corporations through production sharing contracts (PSCs) to explore develop and produce oil and gas in Malaysia. Now the company actively expands its activities over 23 countries including Malaysia. Under PETRONAS Carigali, it consist ten main divisions which are Strategic Planning, HSE, Business Development, Technology Management, Exploration, Petroleum Engineering, Development, Operation, JV Management and Corporate Services. PETRONAS Carigalis Vision: An EP Global Champion. Overview of Exploration and Production Industry Since PETRONAS Carigali involves in exploration and production Industry, some of us might not be familiar with this industry. Actually, what is exploration and production is all about? Exploration and Production (EP) industry is also mainly known as upstream industry. In short, EP industry normally finds and produces crude oil and natural gas. In addition, the upstream oil industries include well exploration, drilling and operation. The upstream oil industry is important because it determines supply which affects prices in the downstream sector. The upstream sector is primarily concerned with finding and utilizing the available petroleum supply whiles the downstream and midstream sectors that are concerned about the demand of oil and its transportation.ÂÂ   Background of Study HRM division in PETRONAS strives to be a strategic partner within the business area, aiming to develop and deliver HR strategies, approaches and services which generate productive impact for the workforce and create value to the organization. The various function along the HR value chain are varied and include organization design, people training, talent sourcing, people development, performance management, remuneration and employee/industrial relation. In HRM division, they move along with the technology advancement through reducing the manual workload of these administrative activities and began to electronically automate many of HR process by introducing specialized Human Resource Management System (HRIS). HRIS is expected to drive Human Resource (HR)s transition from a focus on Human Resource Management (HRM) to Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM). This strategic role not only adds a valuable dimension to the HR function, but also changes the competencies that define HR professional and practitioner success. Definition of Term Human Resource Information System A human Resource Information System is a systematic procedure for collecting, storing, maintaining, retrieving, and validating data needed by an organization about its human resources, personnel activities, and organization about its characteristic. (Kovach and Catcart, 1999) HR Processes HR processes starts by planning labor requirements. This include, resource specifications, long range planning, forecasting supply and demand of labor, staffing, applicant qualification, training programs, costs analysis, salary, contract type, and other related issues. Other key HR processes involve recruiting, selecting, performance appraising, training and orientation, career development, occupational health and safety, and compensation and benefits.(Boeteng,2007) Problem Statement The use of Human Resource Information System (HRIS) has been advocated as an opportunity for human resource (HR) professional to become strategic partner with top management. Decreased costs, improved communication, and decrease in time spent on HR activities should create an environmental where HR department in would play a more strategic role in the organization. The idea of HRIS would allow the HR function to become more efficient and provide better information for decision making. Consequently, the idea of HRIS is seen as an important value towards HR department as a strategic partner of organization. The question remains whether HRIS fulfilled its promise; this study is an initial attempt to measure the factors that influence the importance of Human Resource Information System (HRIS) in HR department towards its workforce and organization generally. Research Objective To identify the factors that influencing the importance of Human Resource Information System in Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd (PCSB) To determine the assessment of the factors that influencing the importance of Human Resource Information System in Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd (PCSB) Research Question What are the factors that influencing the importance of Human Resource Information System (HRIS) in Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd (PCSB) What are the assessment towards the factors that influencing the importance of Human Resource Information System (HRIS) in Petronas Carigali Sdn Bhd (PCSB) Scope of Study This study will deepen the knowledge of Human Resource Information System (HRIS). The topics that cover in this study are to notify the user of the system the importance of HRIS towards achieving its organization strategy. Other than that, to determine factors that influencing the importance of HRIS in PCSB. All the sources and references will referred to primary data and secondary data such as journals, news paper and also reliable article will be supported for the research purpose. 1.8 Significant of Study To Researcher The researcher will gain greater understanding and knowledge in human resource function generally and specifically in human resource information system (HRIS). In addition, this study will provide the necessary information about the research methodology and enhance the researcher analytical skill. To Faculty This study will benefit the faculty for future reference or researcher purpose for lecturers, students, or other researcher who would require the information regarding this research area. This study will reveal how the reality would be compared to theorist that been thought in the classroom. This will be guidance for students to prepare what they are going to be expected once they started their industrial training. To company This study will help the company to enhance their understanding concerning human resource information system (HRIS). In addition, to develop the awareness the importance of HRIS towards their daily works in support their key business strategies. Limitation of study Time constraint A good research may take years to complete, however the time given to complete this study only takes for only 5 months. To chase the very limited dateline, this research requires a longer time to achieve a better and more reliable findings and results. Lack of experience The researcher never been exposed to compose a proper research previously. In result, it takes quite some time for the researcher to understand and learn from previous research. Upon this, it limits the researchers skill and knowledge to conduct this study.

Frances Trade Policy Essay -- French Politics, U.S. French Relations

France’s trade policy is the same as that of other members of the European Union. The common EU weighted average tariff rate was 1.2 percent in 2009. Non-tariff barriers reflected in EU and French policy includes agricultural and manufacturing subsidies, quotas, import restrictions and bans for some goods and services†, (Index of Economic Freedom, 2011). As a member of the EU, France is one part of the largest trading blocks, accounting for approximately 20% of global imports and exports (Index of Economic Freedom, 2011). Open trade created by the EU for member states furthered economic development in those particular nations. As one of the largest members of the World Trade Organization, the EU is a driving force behind multiple trade agreements and plays an integral role in promoting open trade in developing countries. Managerial implications The EU created a borderless system that allows unencumbered trade between businesses. Businesses can buy and sell goods wherever they want without having to pay special customs duties or taxes â€Å"this system is beneficial as the limitations on selling products across the continent are nonexistent† (EU and Trade, 2006). However, the free trade system brings more competition. Consumers have more choices in products, which drives down prices and raises the cost to deliver a quality product. This calls for a diligent focus on production efficiencies, quality control and value added principals in order to deliver a superior product at a competitive price. Foreign Exchange The demand for the Euro continues to increase. Investors who traditionally held their assets in dollars are now looking to other sources such as the Euro as a more reliable commodity (Amadeo). President Sarkozy has r... ...Sep Oct Nov Dec 2010 1.10 1.30 1.60 1.70 1.60 1.50 1.90 1.40 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.70 2009 0.70 0.90 0.30 0.10 -0.30 -0.50 -0.70 -0.20 -0.50 -0.40 -0.20 0.90 2008 2.80 2.80 3.20 3.00 3.30 3.60 3.60 3.20 3.00 2.70 1.60 1.00 GDP France has the second largest economy in Europe following only Germany. The country has been relative stable through the global economic crisis in part due to the â€Å"relative resilience of domestic consumer spending, a large public sector, and less exposure to the downturn in global demand than in some other countries† (CIA Fact Book, 2011). While the GDP did contract in 2009, it rebounded in 2010 and expanded by .40 percent. President Sarkozy has been a proponent to economic stabilization for his country through stimulus and investment measures. However, now he and his government are finding was to reduce spending and cut the deficit. France's Trade Policy Essay -- French Politics, U.S. French Relations France’s trade policy is the same as that of other members of the European Union. The common EU weighted average tariff rate was 1.2 percent in 2009. Non-tariff barriers reflected in EU and French policy includes agricultural and manufacturing subsidies, quotas, import restrictions and bans for some goods and services†, (Index of Economic Freedom, 2011). As a member of the EU, France is one part of the largest trading blocks, accounting for approximately 20% of global imports and exports (Index of Economic Freedom, 2011). Open trade created by the EU for member states furthered economic development in those particular nations. As one of the largest members of the World Trade Organization, the EU is a driving force behind multiple trade agreements and plays an integral role in promoting open trade in developing countries. Managerial implications The EU created a borderless system that allows unencumbered trade between businesses. Businesses can buy and sell goods wherever they want without having to pay special customs duties or taxes â€Å"this system is beneficial as the limitations on selling products across the continent are nonexistent† (EU and Trade, 2006). However, the free trade system brings more competition. Consumers have more choices in products, which drives down prices and raises the cost to deliver a quality product. This calls for a diligent focus on production efficiencies, quality control and value added principals in order to deliver a superior product at a competitive price. Foreign Exchange The demand for the Euro continues to increase. Investors who traditionally held their assets in dollars are now looking to other sources such as the Euro as a more reliable commodity (Amadeo). President Sarkozy has r... ...Sep Oct Nov Dec 2010 1.10 1.30 1.60 1.70 1.60 1.50 1.90 1.40 1.60 1.60 1.60 1.70 2009 0.70 0.90 0.30 0.10 -0.30 -0.50 -0.70 -0.20 -0.50 -0.40 -0.20 0.90 2008 2.80 2.80 3.20 3.00 3.30 3.60 3.60 3.20 3.00 2.70 1.60 1.00 GDP France has the second largest economy in Europe following only Germany. The country has been relative stable through the global economic crisis in part due to the â€Å"relative resilience of domestic consumer spending, a large public sector, and less exposure to the downturn in global demand than in some other countries† (CIA Fact Book, 2011). While the GDP did contract in 2009, it rebounded in 2010 and expanded by .40 percent. President Sarkozy has been a proponent to economic stabilization for his country through stimulus and investment measures. However, now he and his government are finding was to reduce spending and cut the deficit.

Buried Alive! The Fiction of Premature Burial :: Argumentative Persuasive Argument

Buried Alive! The Fiction of Premature Burial Why are there claims that people are being buried alive? I will tell you why; it is an old wives tale so there is no credit to. People were never buried alive, it is all fiction. There were patents put out there but the patents were never supported. The fact that there are no signs of the patented objects ever being used makes you wonder if they ever existed. If they did exist, why are they not being used today? I will tell you why people in the present age are being embalmed. Once a person is embalmed, the body is killed in order to keep it preserved and so it does not rot. In the paper, I will discuss how if a person is buried alive it is improbable that someone would live. In addition, I will discuss the theories about Anne Hill Carter Lee's double burial. If a person were buried alive, there would be no way to tell if they were in fact buried alive. Would you not hear the person screaming to be let out of their tomb? Of course you would not be able to hear a person scream or yell for help. They are six feet under the earth. In the times of old they would supposedly find scratch marks on the lids of coffins, but how do we know if they were telling the truth. Now in the twenty first century, we are finding no evidence of this ever happening in coffins of old days or even now days. There used to be bells and pulleys to let the person on the graveyard shift know someone was there. No longer are there such bells and pulleys. When the person who was on the graveyard shift and heard the supposed bells and sirens they had to dig up the coffin. In reality, this would have taken excessively long and the person in the coffin would run out of air. The fact is there are articles being revised to fit the culture of the twenty-first century. In 1898, the Journal of the American Medical Association editorial reminds us of the peculiar fascination with "premature burial" held for people in the last century. Even if a person should be so unlucky as to be buried while unconscious, the editors pointed out that the average coffin contains so little oxygen that asphyxia would probably precede any return to full consciousness. Buried Alive! The Fiction of Premature Burial :: Argumentative Persuasive Argument Buried Alive! The Fiction of Premature Burial Why are there claims that people are being buried alive? I will tell you why; it is an old wives tale so there is no credit to. People were never buried alive, it is all fiction. There were patents put out there but the patents were never supported. The fact that there are no signs of the patented objects ever being used makes you wonder if they ever existed. If they did exist, why are they not being used today? I will tell you why people in the present age are being embalmed. Once a person is embalmed, the body is killed in order to keep it preserved and so it does not rot. In the paper, I will discuss how if a person is buried alive it is improbable that someone would live. In addition, I will discuss the theories about Anne Hill Carter Lee's double burial. If a person were buried alive, there would be no way to tell if they were in fact buried alive. Would you not hear the person screaming to be let out of their tomb? Of course you would not be able to hear a person scream or yell for help. They are six feet under the earth. In the times of old they would supposedly find scratch marks on the lids of coffins, but how do we know if they were telling the truth. Now in the twenty first century, we are finding no evidence of this ever happening in coffins of old days or even now days. There used to be bells and pulleys to let the person on the graveyard shift know someone was there. No longer are there such bells and pulleys. When the person who was on the graveyard shift and heard the supposed bells and sirens they had to dig up the coffin. In reality, this would have taken excessively long and the person in the coffin would run out of air. The fact is there are articles being revised to fit the culture of the twenty-first century. In 1898, the Journal of the American Medical Association editorial reminds us of the peculiar fascination with "premature burial" held for people in the last century. Even if a person should be so unlucky as to be buried while unconscious, the editors pointed out that the average coffin contains so little oxygen that asphyxia would probably precede any return to full consciousness.

Dissertation on Retention

Management Decision Emerald Article: A reconceptualization of mentoring and sponsoring Earnest Friday, Shawnta S. Friday, Anna L. Green Article information: To cite this document: Earnest Friday, Shawnta S. Friday, Anna L. Green, (2004),†A reconceptualization of mentoring and sponsoring†, Management Decision, Vol. 42 Iss: 5 pp. 628 – 644 Permanent link to this document: http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/00251740410538488 Downloaded on: 26-10-2012 References: This document contains references to 54 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 7 other documents To copy this document: [email  protected] om This document has been downloaded 1621 times since 2005. * Users who downloaded this Article also downloaded: * David Clutterbuck, (2004),†Making the most of informal mentoring: A positive climate is key†, Development and Learning in Organizations, Vol. 18 Iss: 4 pp. 16 – 17 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/14777280410544574 (2004),†R eview articles Getting the best out of workplace mentoring: More help for the helper†, Development and Learning in Organizations, Vol. 18 Iss: 5 pp. 20 – 22 http://dx. doi. org/10. 108/14777280410554979 Sandy Bond, (2011),†Barriers and drivers to green buildings in Australia and New Zealand†, Journal of Property Investment & Finance, Vol. 29 Iss: 4 pp. 494 – 509 http://dx. doi. org/10. 1108/14635781111150367 Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by ROBERT GORDON UNIVERSITY For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit www. emeraldinsight. om/authors for more information. About Emerald www. emeraldinsight. com With over forty years' experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation. Related content and download information correct at time of download. The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at www. emeraldinsight. com/researchregister The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www. emeraldinsight. com/0025-1747. htm MD 42,5 A reconceptualization of mentoring and sponsoring Earnest Friday Department of Management and International Business, College of Business Administration, Miami, Florida, USA 628 Shawnta S. Friday and Anna L. GreenSchool of Business and Industry, Florida A University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA Keywords Mentoring, Career development Abstract Mentoring is highly regarded as a career-enhancing phenomenon necessary for any aspiring executive. Several debates within the literature have led to a lack of consistency regarding the de? nition of mentoring and a mentor, the functions of a mentor, and the various types of mentoring. It appears that much of the confusion stems from the relationship and association of mentoring with the concept of sponsoring.Within the majority of the literature regarding developmental relationships, sponsoring has been posited to be a sub-function of mentoring. This paper presents two arguments for viewing and examining mentoring and sponsoring as distinctly different, non-mutually exclusive, and possibly concurrent phenomena, as well as offers universal de? nitions for both terms. This delineation is offered to aid aspiring executives in their decision making process as to whether to select a mentor, a sponsor, or both. Man agement Decision Vol. 42 No. 5, 2004 pp. 628-644 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0025-1747 DOI 10. 108/00251740410538488 Introduction Mentoring is an enduring and dynamic phenomenon, which dates back to ancient Greece when Odysseus entrusted the eponymous character, Mentor, with his son, Telemachus thousands of years ago in Homer’s Odyssey (Friday and Friday, 2002). The term â€Å"mentoring† has surged into the literature in many disciplines (e. g. , sociology, social psychology, education, management, social work, healthcare management, etc. ) over the last several decades. Mentoring emerged in the organizational literature in the late 1970s (e. g. Clawson, 1979; Collins and Scott, 1978; Kanter, 1977; Phillips, 1977; Roche, 1979; Shapiro et al. , 1978). Since that time, hundreds of books and articles (popular press, practitioner-oriented, and academic) have been published on mentoring in various organizational settings alone, not to mention other settings in which mentoring has been examined (e. g. , teaching, nursing, social work, etc. ) (Kelly, 2001). Published works in the organizational literature on mentoring have been anecdotal, conceptual, and empirical; and several journals have dedicated special editions to mentoring.By and large, these published works have highlighted the overwhelming perceived bene? ts (e. g. , increased mobility, promotion opportunity, and total compensation), and minimal perceived drawbacks of mentoring (Campion and Gold? nch, 1983; Kelly, 2001; Scandura, 1992, 1998; Whitely et al. , 1991, 1992). Hence, mentoring has been proclaimed as one of the key career development and advancement tools in the organizational milieu over the last decade (Simonetti et al. , 1999). In the organizational literature, Kram’s (1980) work has been viewed as one of the most comprehensive treatments of the mentoring concept (Scandura, 1998).It is implicit in Kram’s (1980, 1983, 1985) works that she explored naturally occu rring, informal mentoring relationships. Consequently, the functions and phases of mentoring that she inducted pertain primarily to informal mentoring. Based on her ? ndings, Kram (1980) suggested that mentors provide career support (sponsorship, exposure-and-visibility, coaching, protection, and challenging assignments) and psychosocial support (role modeling, acceptance-and-con? rmation, counseling, and ? ? friendship) to their proteges. She also suggested that mentorships (mentoring relationships) move through four phases: ? (1) initiation (the mentor and protege admire, respect, and trust one another); ? ? (2) cultivation (the protege develops competence and con? dence from the career and psychosocial support provided by the mentor); ? ? (3) separation (the paternalistic relationship between the mentor and protege changes, which may lead to non-positive affective experiences for both, because ? ? the protege has become more independent and empowered); and ? ? (4) rede? nition (t he mentor and protege’s relationship is reshaped to meet more collegial needs) (Kram, 1983).A canvassing of published works examining organizational mentoring suggests that as far back as the early 1980s (e. g. , Campion and Gold? nch, 1983; Hunt and Michael, 1983) and as recent as the early 2000s (e. g. , Higgins and Kram, 2001; Kelly, 2001) a lack of consensus on the de? nitions of mentoring and mentor has been articulated in the literature (Chao, 1998; Kelly, 2001; Lawson, 1996; Minter and Thomas, 2000; Noe, 1988a, 1988b). Hence, research on organizational mentoring has been criticized for not being conceptually well grounded (Gibb, 1994). An examination of over 200 practitioner and academic journal articles in the ? ld of management alone revealed that most de? nitions in the literature of mentoring, stated or implied, include sponsor or sponsoring as inherent in mentoring (e. g. , Campion and Gold? nch, 1983; Kram, 1983; Noe, 1988a, 1988b; Turban and Dougherty, 1994; Whi tely et al. , 1991), while some do not (e. g. , Covaleski et al. , 1998; Hunt and Michael, 1983). Similarly, most de? nitions of mentor (stated or implied) within the literature include sponsor or sponsoring in the de? nition (e. g. , Higgins and Kram, 2001; Scandura, 1998; Whitely et al. , 1991), while some do not (e. g. Hunt and Michael, 1983; Scandura and Schriesheim, 1994). Interestingly, some researchers did not directly state a de? nition of mentoring or mentor in either their survey or interviewing of participants (Phillips-Jones, 1982; Whitely et al. , 1992), thus allowing participants to draw on their own intuitive understanding of the mentor and mentoring concepts (Ragins and Cotton, 1993). However, other researchers did provide a de? nition of one of the concepts (mentor or mentoring) even though they recognized that the participants are still likely to draw on their own intuitive understanding of the terms (Chao et al. 1992; Ragins and Cotton, 1993). Still, given this la ck of consensus on de? nitions for mentoring and mentor, researchers and practitioners alike have continued to examine and explore various facets of mentoring. Those various facets include mentoring functions (e. g. , Kram, 1980, 1983), mentoring phases (e. g. , Kram, 1980, 1983), types of mentoring (e. g. , Burke and McKeen, 1989; Chao et al. , 1992), potential bene? ts of mentoring (e. g. , Fagenson, 1989; Scandura, 1992; Whitely et al. , 1992), potential drawbacks of mentoring (e. g. , Ragins et al. 2000; Scandura, 1998), diversity in mentoring (e. g. , Ragins, 1997; Ragins and Scandura, 1994; Thomas, 1993), and mentoring alternatives (e. g. , Higgins and Kram; Kram and Isabella, 1985). While many researchers have articulated the idea that the operational de? nitions of mentoring and mentor have varied considerably within Mentoring and sponsoring 629 MD 42,5 630 the last several decades, with some encompassing sponsorship or sponsor (Chao, 1998; Higgins and Kram, 2001; Mullen, 19 98), two of those major researchers have argued that mentoring needs to be reconceptualized (Higgins and Kram, 2001).Hence, two arguments for reconceptualizing mentoring are offered: (1) the lack of clarity and consensus on the de? nitions of a mentor, the process of mentoring, and the role of sponsoring; and ? ? (2) informal and formal proteges tend not to always receive career support, speci? cally sponsoring from their mentors (Bahniuk and Kogler Hill, 1998; Chao et al. , 1992; Noe, 1988b). Thus, the aim of this paper is to reconceptualize mentoring and sponsoring, and to offer them as distinctly different concepts, rather than viewing sponsoring as an inherent sub-function of mentoring.Therefore, it is posited that the reconceptualization of these two terms (mentoring and sponsoring) may bring much needed clarity and consensus to the organizational mentoring literature. It is also posited that this reconceptualization will provide aspiring executives with new knowledge to use in their decision making process as they select individuals to help them advance their careers. Mentoring and sponsoring – argument one Dalton et al. ’s (1977) theory of professional career development distinguished between mentor and sponsor, suggesting that an individual becomes a sponsor after being a mentor. On the other hand, Levinson et al. 1978, p. 97) viewed â€Å"a mentor as. . . a teacher, advisor, or sponsor†. These assertions would lead some to believe that the terms mentor and sponsor are confusing and overlapping (Campion and Gold? nch, 1983). As a result, the following question arises: has mentoring been used as a â€Å"catch-all† term? The answer would appear to be yes, given that the following terms have been used to describe a mentor in the organizational literature: guide, host advisor, sponsor, role model, teacher, protector, invisible godparent, friend, coach, counselor, patron, exemplar, benefactor, and advocate (Kelly, 2001; Pittenger and Heimann, 2000).Yet, Chao (1998) asserted that distinctions have been made between the terms mentor and sponsor. More recently, Higgins and Kram (2001, p. 269) echoed Chao’s (1998) sentiments, and distinguished between a mentor and sponsor by stating that â€Å"true mentors. . . provide high amounts of both career and psychosocial support, and sponsors. . . provide high amounts of career support but low amounts of psychosocial support†. Whether it is the interchangeable use of these two terms or the current de? itions of each that are posited to represent their distinction, it is feasible that both, to some degree, have contributed to much of the confusion in the organizational mentoring literature, thus leading to the mixed results on mentoring (Jacobi, 1991). In spite of the confusion and mixed results, mentoring relationships have been viewed as â€Å"one of the most complex and developmentally important relationships† in organizational settings (Levinson et al. , 1978, p. 97). Thus, mentorships and sponsorships have been pronounced to be critically important to the upward mobility of individuals in organizations (Kanter, 1977).The work of Levinson et al. (1978) served as the theoretical foundation for much of Kram’s (1980, 1983) work on mentoring, which appears to be the most comprehensive treatment in the organizational literature (Scandura, 1998). They suggested that a mentor is an individual who is usually older and â€Å"of greater experience and seniority. . . a teacher, adviser or sponsor† (Levinson et al. , 1978, p. 97). Building on the work of Levinson et al. (1978), Kram (1980) suggested that a mentor is a more senior ? ? individual who provides career and psychosocial support for the protege.Kram (1980, 1983) postulated career functions to include sponsorship, exposure and visibility, coaching, protection, and challenging assignments. The psychosocial functions were postulated to included role modeling, acce ptance-and-con? rmation, counseling, and friendship (Kram, 1980, 1983). Many of the de? nitions of a mentor used throughout the literature referenced Kram’s (1980, 1983, 1985) de? nition of mentor. Table I delineates how the terms â€Å"sponsor† or â€Å"sponsorship† are explicit in the de? nitions of mentor or mentoring that stem from Levinson et al. ’ (1978) and Kram’s (1980) de? nitions.Table I also depicts the de? nitions or lack of de? nitions of mentoring, mentor, and sponsor used in some published works that are generally considered premier management journals (Cabell, 2001). Due to the myriad management-related articles on mentoring, this method was chosen to determine which sampling of articles would be included in the table. As outlined in Table I, not all articles on mentoring explicitly de? ned mentoring, mentor, and/or sponsor, while a few did. As previously stated, in most cases, sponsoring is considered as sub-function of mentoring. Although there are various de? itions of mentor used throughout the literature, there appears to be more consistency in the de? nitions of sponsor used within the literature (see Table I). Sponsoring has been viewed in the literature as a developmental relationship in ? ? which the sponsor provides instrumental career support by nominating the protege for promotion and other types of organizational activities that may be supportive of promotion (Campion and Gold? nch, 1983; Thomas, 1993). This is relatively consistent ? ? with Kanter’s (1977) work, which posits that sponsors facilitate proteges in obtaining ? inside information and bypassing the hierarchy, as well as ? ght for their proteges’ promotions. While Shapiro et al. ’s (1978) continuum of advisory/support relationships acknowledges a difference between the organizational power that mentors and sponsors ? ? have in promoting the upward mobility of their proteges, they consider sponsors to have less organ izational power than mentors thereby causing mentors to be seen as more prominent than sponsors. It is highly probable that as a result of the works of Shapiro et al. 1978) and Kram (1980; 1983), which considers sponsoring a sub-function provided by mentors, that sponsoring has been viewed as a less powerful organizational developmental relationship than mentoring (Chao, 1998). This subjugation, thus causes sponsoring to remain in the shadows of organizational mentoring research. It is worthy to note that Kram’s (1980, 1983) early works were based on ? ndings from a sample in which a majority (11) of the 18 developmental relationships were direct or indirect reporting relationships in some phase of the developmental relationship.Consequently, the mentors had direct or indirect responsibility for promoting their ? ? protege. In which case, sponsoring (the nominating for promotion) was inherent in the developmental relationships Kram (1980, 1983) observed. Thus, Kram (1980, 198 3) was actually observing concurrent phenomena within her sample. Therefore, much of the organizational mentoring theory developed by Kram (1980, 1983) is based on what in recent research has been termed â€Å"supervisory mentoring†. Following suit, the supervisor-subordinate relationship has been the focus of much of the mentoring research (Gibb and Megginson, 1993).In this type of relationship, there is a high Mentoring and sponsoring 631 MD 42,5 632 Author (year) Campion and Gold? nch A relationship in which an individual takes a 1) Any individual who has a signi? cant positive 1) A sponsor discovers and fosters (1983) personal interest in another’s career and guides in? uence on another’s career, whether the role be individuals for higher placement in or sponsors that person one of sponsor, coach, or counselor other parts of the organization 2) A sponsor functions to generate ? power in proteges by ? ghting for and promoting them, by allowing them to bypass the hierarchy and obtain inside information, and by re? ected power or power by association Hunt and Michael (1983) Involves a unique, often emotionally 1) A person who suggests and advises new â€Å"fast interpersonal type of support and advising role track† recruits on career success matters that can be used to train and develop talented 2) A trusted counselor or guide ? ? ? proteges in many careers and organizations 3) A guide supporting a protege’s young adult dreams and helping in the attainment of them ? ? 4) A nonparental career role model for a protege Kram and Isabella Has a great potential to enhance the (1985) development of individuals in both early and middle career stages Noe (1988a) 1) An experienced, productive manager who relates well to a less-experienced employee and facilitates his/her personal development for the bene? t of the individual as well as that of the organization 2) Usually eight to 15 years older than the ? protege who frequently is a y oung professional with high career aspirations Noe (1988b) 1) A senior, experienced employee who serves as a role model, provides support, direction, and feedback to the younger employee regarding career plans and interpersonal development, and ? ? increases the visibility of the protege to decision makers in the organization who may in? uence career opportunities (continued) Table I. De? nitions of mentoring, mentor, and sponsor given in articles in premier journals Mentor de? nition(s) given in article Sponsor de? nition Mentoring/mentorship de? ition(s) given in article Author (year) Mentors actively intervene, contriving ? ? to get their proteges exposure and visibility through assignments that involve working with other managers ? ? and endorsing their proteges for promotions and special projects Mentoring/mentorship de? nition(s) given in article Mentor de? nition(s) given in article Sponsor de? nition Whitely et al. (1991) Whitely et al. (1992) 1) A particular interpersonal r elationship that can in? uence career progress 2) Classical, or primary, mentoring is an intense developmental relationship of relatively long ? duration in which proteges receive a range of career and psychosocial help exclusively from one senior manager 3) Secondary mentoring is a shorter, less intense, less inclusive developmental process involving multiple relationships, each offering specialized developmental functions, which tends to focus on external, career progress-oriented functions, such as sponsorship and visibility and exposure, rather than on inner-oriented psychosocial development functions 4) A set of roles and role activities including coaching, support, and sponsorship 5) Psychosocial mentoring referring to activities like providing counselling and friendship 6) Career mentoring referring to providing sponsorship, exposure, and the like 1) â€Å"Classical† mentoring is where the developmental relationship is of relatively long duration, is intense, mostly ex clusive, and in ? which a protege receives a range of career-oriented and psychosocial help from one senior manager 2) Career mentoring includes short duration, less intense, multiple, and less exclusive relationships that are more specialized in the kind of progress-oriented functions provided to ? ? proteges, they are more likely to focus on external, career-oriented mentoring functions, such as sponsorship or visibility/exposure, than on â€Å"inner-oriented† psychosocial developmental functions (continued) Mentoring and sponsoring 633 Table I. MD 42,5 634 Author (year) 1) Someone who provides high amounts of both career and psychosocial support 2) â€Å"The mentor is ordinarily several years older, a person of greater experience and seniority. . . a teacher, adviser or sponsor† (Levinson et al. , 1978) Higgins and Kram (2001) Chao et al. (1992)Ragins and Scandura (1994) Scandura and Schriesheim (1994) Turban and Dougherty 1) A set of role activities, including coac hing, (1994) support, and sponsorship, that upper-level ? ? managers provide to proteges Tepper (1995) Table I. Mentor de? nition(s) given in article Sponsor de? nition 1) A sponsor is included in one of the de? nitions of a mentor 2) Someone who provides high amounts of career support but low amounts of psychosocial support 1) Individuals with advanced experience and knowledge who are committed to providing support to and increasing the upward mobility ? ? of junior organization members, their proteges 2) An individual in? ential in the work environment who has advanced experience and knowledge and who is committed to providing upward mobility and support to careers 1) A trusted counsellor who accepts a guiding role in the development of a younger or less-experienced member of the organization 1) An in? uential individual at work who has advanced knowledge and who is committed to providing upward mobility and support to a person’s career (continued) Mentoring/mentorship de? nition(s) given in article 1) The developmental assistance provided by a ? ? more senior individual within a protege’s organization 2) A relationship in which a senior person ? ? working in the protege’s organization assists ? with the protege’s personal and professional development Mentorship is de? ned as an intense work relationship between senior (mentor) and junior ? ? (protege) organizational members. The mentor has experience and power in the organization and personally advises, counsels, coaches, and ? ? promotes the career development of the protege. ? ? Promotion of the protege’s career may occur directly through actual promotions or indirectly through the mentor’s in? uence and power over other organizational members Author (year) Mentoring/mentorship de? nition(s) given in article Mentor de? nition(s) given in article Sponsor de? nition Dreher and Cox (1996) ) Mentoring in organizations has been de? ned as a developmental relationship b etween an ? ? individual (protege) and a more senior and in? uential manager or professional (mentor) 2) Focuses particularly on the career-support aspects of mentoring Ragins (1997) 1) One who serves as a role model, friend, and ? ? counsellor, who accepts and helps the protege develop a positive and secure self-image 2) An individual who holds a position senior to yours who takes an active interest in developing your career. While it is possible for your immediate supervisor to serve as a mentor, relationships of this type represent a special opportunity to interact with a senior manager.The standard subordinate/supervisor relationship is not a mentoring relationship (it is possible to have multiple mentors) 1) Individuals with advanced experience and knowledge who are committed to providing ? ? upward mobility and support to their proteges’ careers Covaleski et al. (1998) 1) Sometimes also called coaching or counselling 2) It involves relations between senior managers and junior employees, in which the latter can â€Å"become interwoven into an organization’s culture by efforts of the former, who, embodying the â€Å"core values that best promote desired organization culture,† help frame the inculcation process† as well as â€Å"help cultivate desired norms and values† 3) A technique by which junior members imbibe and interiorize the more subtle, tacit, and noncodi? ble aspects of an organization’s goals, which are embodied in superiors and with which they develop their new identi? es as ? rm members 1) A more senior person who takes an interest in sponsorship of the career of a more junior person (Kram, 1985) (continued) Scandura (1998) Mentoring and sponsoring 635 Table I. MD 42,5 636 Author (year) 1) The mentor is traditionally de? ned as a source ? ? of information for the protege and the positive outcomes, such as greater income and promotion opportunities Mullen and Noe (1999) Ragins et al. (2000) Higgins and Kram (2001) Table I. Mentor de? nition(s) given in article Sponsor de? nition 1) Generally de? ned as individuals with advanced experience and knowledge who are committed to providing upward mobility and ? career support to their proteges (Kram, 1985) 2) A higher-ranking, in? uential individual in your work environment who has advanced experience and knowledge and is committed to providing upward mobility and support to your career Mentoring/mentorship de? nition(s) given in article A mentoring relationship is a one-to-one relationship between a more experienced member (mentor) and a less experienced member ? ? (protege) of the organization or profession. The relationship is developed to promote the ? ? professional and personal growth of the protege through coaching, support, and guidance. Through individualized attention, the mentor transfers needed information, feedback, and ? encouragement to the protege as well as providing emotional support and â€Å"putting in a good wordâ⠂¬  when possible Formal mentoring was as follows: â€Å"In order to assist individuals in their development and advancement, some organizations have established formal mentoring programs, where ? ? proteges and mentors are linked in some way. This may be accomplished by assigning mentors or by just providing formal opportunities aimed at developing the relationship. To recap: formal mentoring relationships are developed with organizational assistance. Informal mentoring relationships are developed spontaneously, without organizational assistance† A â€Å"traditional† mentoring relationship is one in ? ? which a senior person working in the protege’s ? ? organization assists the protege’s personal and professional development probability that the mentor will provide both psychosocial and career support for the ? ? protege.This would explain why sponsoring has surfaced as being inherent to mentoring in both qualitative research (e. g. , Kram, 1980, 1983) and quantitative research (e. g. , Noe, 1988a; Scandura, 1992), thus being viewed as a sub-function of mentoring. However, if a mentor is conceptualized in its most simplest of terms – those used by Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary – a wise and trusted counselor or teacher; and likewise with a sponsor – a person who vouches for, is responsible for, or supports a person or makes a pledge or promise on behalf of another – then from the onset, the nature of the reporting relationships in Kram’s study (1980, 1983) moved the examined phenomenon beyond the realm of just a mentoring relationship. Moving beyond this de? ition of mentor, there are at least two additional rationales for why a sponsor should not be viewed as inherent in mentoring, in addition to not being used interchangeably with the term mentor. First, the derivations of the terms are disparate – mentor from the ? ? Latin word mentor, meaning to teach; and sponsor from the Lati n word spondere, meaning to pledge. Second, based on Webster’s New World Thesaurus, mentor and sponsor are not synonyms. So, while Kram (1980, 1983) did observe the presence of the sponsoring phenomenon in her study, it is argued that it should have been considered a distinct concept rather than being considered inherent in mentoring.Since the foundation upon which the original conceptualization of organizational mentoring was developed in a somewhat dubious context, it begs the question as to the interchangeable usage of the terms mentor and sponsor. Similarly, given the emergence of the concept coaching in the literature as a distinctly different developmental concept than mentoring, it is posited that sponsoring should re-emerge as a distinctly different developmental relationship worthy of as much examination in the organizational literature as has coaching. So, based on this ? rst argument, it is posited that sponsoring may be just as important as mentoring in the upward mobility of individuals in organizational settings (Kanter, 1977).Therefore, a paradigm shift and new lens through which to investigate and utilize mentoring and sponsoring in organizational settings are being presented. Mentoring and sponsoring 637 Universal de? nitions Given the review of the various de? nitions of mentor, mentoring, sponsor, and sponsoring that have been presented in the literature, to date, â€Å"explaining mentoring through a single, universal and prescriptive de? nition. . . [has proven to be] inadequate† (Gibb, 1994, p. 47). However, explaining mentoring through a single universal and descriptive de? nition is more than adequate. Such a de? nition is necessary to provide solid conceptual grounding, and a lens through which to further examine and utilize mentoring and sponsoring. Hence, this is an opportune juncture to advance universal de? itions of mentoring and sponsoring to be used and operationalized in any research or organizational context hence forth. The following universal de? nitions regarding the concepts of mentor, mentoring, and mentorships are offered: . a mentor is a wise and trusted counselor or teacher; . mentoring is the guidance process that takes place between a mentor and a ? ? protege; and . ? ? a mentorship is a mentoring relationship between a mentor and a protege. MD 42,5 638 Similarly, regarding the concepts of sponsor, sponsoring, and sponsorships, the following universal de? nitions are offered: . ? ? a sponsor is a person who nominates or supports another person’s (protege) promotion; . ? ? ponsoring is the process of a sponsor nominating or supporting a protege’s promotion; and . ? ? a sponsorship is a sponsoring relationship between a sponsor and a protege. It should be noted that these suggested universal de? nitions of mentor and sponsor ? ? connote that neither one has to be older than the protege, which is a deviation from the sometimes explicit and other times implicit de? nitions for both terms in the organizational mentoring literature. It should also be noted that a mentor does not ? ? always have to be an organizational success to provide the protege with valuable guidance. Additionally, these universal de? nitions are speci? , yet general enough to be applicable regardless of the profession in which they may be studied or the research question examined, which has been perceived to be a matter of contention (Chao, 1998). Therefore, these de? nitions of mentor and mentoring allow for many of the forms of mentoring examined in the literature to be viewed as types of mentoring. This is consistent with Higgins and Kram’s (2001, p. 264) assertion that they are exploring different types of mentoring in their recent article, which views â€Å"mentoring as a multiple developmental relationship phenomenon†. Formal and informal mentorships – argument two The second argument for reconceptualizing mentoring and sponsoring requires an examination of the literature on formal and informal mentorships.As previously stated, original theorizing of organizational mentoring, in large part, resulted from the examination of informal, intraorganizational mentorships (i. e. , Kram, 1980, 1983). These types of mentorships have been purported to be a key developmental tool in the upward mobility of individuals in organizations (Hunt and Michael, 1983; Kanter, 1977; Pittenger and Heimann, 2000; Ragins et al. , 2000). Many researchers believe that all those who succeed have mentors, usually informal mentors (Campion and Gold? nch, 1983; Collins and Scott, 1978; Kanter, 1977). It should also be noted that sponsors have been said to be important to those who succeed (Kanter, 1977; Dalton et al. 1977) although they have not been the focus of as much attention in the literature as have mentors. Unlike sponsorships, there are copious amounts of articles suggesting that both informal and formal mentorships exist within most organizations, with informal mentorships being the most prevalent (e. g. , Noe, 1998b, Phillips-Jones, 1982). Informal ? ? mentorships are mentoring relationships where the mentor and protege, on their own ? ? accord, agree that the protege will trust the mentor to counsel or teach him/her (Noe, 1988a, 1988b). Formal mentorships refer to mentoring relationships where a third party ? ? (usually the organization) sanctions an agreement between mentor and protege, ? whereby the protege should trust the mentor to counsel or teach him/her (Noe, 1988a, 1988b). Both informal and formal mentorships can be either intraorganizational or interorganizational relationships (Ragins, 1997). Intraorganizational mentorships refer ? ? to those mentoring relationships in which both the mentor and the protege are employed by the same organization. Interorganizational mentorships pertain to ? ? mentoring relationships where the mentor and protege are employed by different organizations. Similar to mentoring, based on the u niversal de? nitions of sponsor and sponsoring offered in this paper, sponsoring can be formal or informal, and can occur intraorganizationally or interorganizationally.Informal mentorships tend to germinate as a result of work or non-work issues that ? ? lead the mentor and protege to realize they have shared interests, admiration, and commitment, which makes informal mentorships more in-depth and personal (Chao et al. , 1992; Lawson, 1996; Noe, 1988b). Thus, informal mentorships are likely to move beyond the discussion of career-related issues to more personal issues (Chao et al. , 1992; Noe, 1988b). The following examples given in an excerpt taken from Kalb? eisch (2000, p. 58) symbolize and embody some of the characteristics of informal mentorships: ? ? At a corporate cocktail party the proud mentor shows off her protege to her colleagues. As ? she introduces her rising star, her protege follows her lead in smiling and moving through the ? ? crowd. The protege mirrors her mentor ’s moves as she smoothly joins conversations then ? ? skillfully continues on to other interactions. At the golf course a mentor brings his protege along as a â€Å"fourth† to make up for a missing member of a traditional Saturday morning golf ? ? quartet. The mentor tells his pals that his protege is â€Å"like a son to him† and that he will ? t right in to their game. Mentoring and sponsoring 639 These examples illustrate how interactions in informal mentorships tend to move outside the typical con? nes of the of? ce.As a result of work and non-work interactions, ? ? the mentor helps to in? uence and socialize the protege (Bahniuk and Kogler Hill, 1998; ? ? Noe, 1988a). In addition, the mentor provides the protege with support, guidance, and feedback as a result of his/her knowledge about how to get things done, â€Å"what’s what,† and â€Å"who’s who† (Bahniuk and Kogler Hill, 1998; Noe, 1988b; Veale and Wachtel, 1996). ? ? Therefo re, â€Å"proteges learn from their mentors. . . not only how to do their jobs better, but also how to manage their organizational careers better, and how to balance and manage their lives better† (Lawson, 1996, p. 6). As a consequence of the perceived bene? s of informal mentoring, formal mentoring programs began to surface in the early 1980s to provide mentoring to â€Å"more than just a lucky few† (Forret et al. , 1996, p. 6) in an effort to replicate and capitalize on the perceived bene? ts of informal mentoring (Bahniuk and Kogler Hill, 1998; Noe, 1988b; Ragins et al. , 2000). While many organizations have implemented formal mentoring programs, there has been a lack of agreement on the intent and extent to which they are formalized in organizations (Noe, 1988b). Therefore, it has been suggested that ? ? organizations should not expect proteges in formal mentorships to gain the same ? ? bene? ts as proteges in informal mentorships (Noe, 1988b).Regardless, many orga nizations have instituted some form of formalized mentoring in an effort to gain a competitive advantage in today’s global and dynamic marketplace (Pittenger and Heimann, 2000; Veale and Wachtel, 1996). Some characteristics of formal mentoring programs are: top management support; corporate mentoring strategy; prudent mentor ? ? ? ? and protege selection and matching processes; comprehensive mentor and protege ? ? orientation; clearly stated expectations and responsibilities of mentor and protege; and ? ? established duration and contact frequency between the mentor and protege (Friday and Friday, 2002; Noe, 1988b; Scandura, 1998). Although formal mentoring programs are designed to replicate and capitalize on the bene? s of informal mentoring (Bahniuk and Kogler Hill, 1998; Noe, 1988b; Ragins et al. , MD 42,5 640 2000), de? nite differences exist between them. Chao et al. (1992) suggest that the most notable differences between formal and informal mentorships begin with the i nitiation phase. The differences begin with the alteration of the voluntary nature from which informal mentorships evolve (Ragins, 1997). In formal mentoring programs, mentors ? ? and proteges are assigned (Chao et al. , 1992; Noe, 1988b; Scandura, 1998). The literature ? ? suggests that proteges may not perceive formal mentors as bene? cial as informal mentors. Numerous factors (e. g. , required participation, personality con? icts, perceptual con? cts, limited interaction, perceived pressure, lack of commitment and motivation, differences in expectations, lack of intimacy and perceived value, and ? ? sanctioned monitoring) contribute to formal proteges considering their mentors not to ? ? be as bene? cial as informal proteges consider their mentors (Chao et al. , 1992; Kram, 1985; Lee et al. , 2000; Noe, 1988b, Ragins et al. , 2000; Tepper, 1995). This perceived decrease in bene? t is likely the case because while formal mentors have been found to provide the same amount of psycho social support as informal mentors, they have not been found to provide the same amount of career support, which is usually an expected outcome of mentoring (Chao et al. , 1992; Noe, 1988a).As purported by Kram (1980, 1983), in naturally occurring, informal mentorships, ? ? mentors tend to provide both career and psychosocial support to their proteges. However, research suggests that in some informal mentorships and many formal mentorships, mentors tend to have dif? culty providing both types of support to their ? ? proteges, with the majority of the dif? culty being in providing career support (Bahniuk and Kogler Hill, 1998; Chao et al. , 1992; Noe, 1988b). Given the observance of dif? culty formal and informal mentors tend to experience in providing career support, ? ? particularly sponsorship, to their proteges, it lends support to the argument that mentoring and sponsoring are distinct phenomena.Consistent with Kram’s (1985) original conceptualization of â€Å"relationsh ip constellations† (in which multiple developmental relationships are not all provided by one individual) facilitating an individual in his/her upward mobility within the organization, mentoring and sponsoring are posited as distinct, but related, non-mutually exclusive developmental relationships. Thus, mentoring and sponsoring may be provided by the same individual, but it is not necessary or expected that they will both be provided by the ? ? same individual. Therefore, a mentor and a sponsor for a protege may be one in the same or they may be two different individuals. Kram’s (1985) work made the distinction â€Å". . . etween the classic mentoring relationship and other less involving, exclusive, and intricate types of relationships such as the sponsor relationship. . . † (Murrell and James, 2001). This distinction is likely to have contributed to the lack of importance given to the sponsor relationship and its potential in? uence on career advancement as co mpared to the attention given to the mentor relationship. Although the classic mentoring relationship, which is more psychosocial, has been found to enhance the competence and personal effectiveness of individuals trying to advance, it is the sponsor relationship that has shown to relate more closely to individuals actually advancing in organizations (Murrell and James, 2001).Thus, for aspiring executives developing career strategies it is suggested that mentors be selected when they need to enhance their competence and effectiveness on the job, and that sponsors be selected to assist them in advancing within the organization. Therefore, aspiring executives may use these two types of developmental relationships independently or concurrently at various stages of their careers based on their needs at that given point in time. Mentoring and sponsoring Conclusion Over the last three decades, much of the organizational mentoring research has conceptualized mentoring as the career and psy chosocial developmental support provided by a more senior individual to a more junior individual (Higgins and Kram, 2001; Kram, 1983).As outlined by Kram (1980, 1983), it has been suggested that only a subset of possible functions is provided by most mentors. Usually, providing upward ? ? mobility for the protege is not in the subset provided (Chao et al. , 1992; Kram, 1986; Noe, 1988b). This raises a question. If the mentor is providing all the other ? ? sub-functions, but not providing upward mobility for the protege, is this a mentoring relationship? According to the existing literature the answer would be: â€Å"Yes, but the ? ? mentor is just not sponsoring the protege; therefore, he/she is not a true mentor† according to Higgins and Kram (2001). They claim that a â€Å"true mentor† provides high ? ? amounts of both psychosocial and career support to his/her protege.On the other hand, according to the arguments posited in this paper, the answer would be â€Å"yes ,† and while the mentor is not a sponsor, he/she is a â€Å"true mentor† nonetheless. Some researchers have suggested that there is no one word that communicates what has been perceived in the literature to date as mentoring (Burke and McKeen, 1989; Levinson et al. , 1978). That may be the case because, to date, researchers have likely been examining at least two phenomena simultaneously, mentoring and sponsoring. The various de? nitions of mentor and mentoring, and the movement of mentoring into a formally structured arena have helped to highlight the distinction between mentoring and sponsoring as being distinct, non-mutually exclusive, and possibly non-concurrent phenomena.While scholars may have distinguished between mentors and sponsors (Kanter, 1977; it is being argued that as long as the concept of mentoring is viewed as ? ? encompassing the sponsoring of a protege’s nomination for promotion, the concept and its operationalization will lack clarity, and th us remain less scienti? cally supported than would be desired. Therefore, mentoring and sponsoring should be viewed as two distinctly different developmental relationships that are not necessarily mutually exclusive in terms of being performed by the same individual. Consequently, the terms mentor and sponsor, and mentoring and sponsoring should not be used interchangeably.With the assertion that there is no explicit agreement on which types of developmental experiences should be classi? ed as mentoring (Whitely et al. , 1992), the changing demographics in the workforce, and the global business milieu of this millennium, mentoring and sponsoring need to be reconceptualized (Higgins and Kram, 2001; Ragins, 1997). This paper has done just that; it has reconceptualized mentoring and sponsoring to account for the infusion of new dynamics that have arisen, and that are likely to arise, since the initial conceptualizing and theorizing of the terms in the organizational literature dating b ack at least three decades ago (e. g. Collins and Scott, 1978; Kanter, 1977; Lawson, 1996; Roche, 1979). If mentoring and sponsoring are to be considered enduring scienti? c phenomena, their de? nitions and operationalizations should not change every time environmental or organizational dynamics change or by different users of the terms (e. g. , researchers, practitioners, etc). 641 MD 42,5 642 The universal de? nitions offered in this paper are considered enduring. Regardless of the research or organizational environment and its dynamics, these universal de? nitions will not need to be changed, thereby allowing for consistency in the de? nitions and operationalizations of mentoring and sponsoring in future research and practice.Given the two lucid arguments presented, strong evidence exists to warrant the future use of these new lens through which to view and examine mentoring and sponsoring in organizational settings. In conclusion, aspiring executives have new information, which can help them develop a more effective career enhancement strategy that includes both mentors and sponsors. 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